Fuel cell

The invention: An electrochemical cell that directly converts energy
from reactions between oxidants and fuels, such as liquid
hydrogen, into electrical energy.
The people behind the invention:
Francis Thomas Bacon (1904-1992), an English engineer
Sir William Robert Grove (1811-1896), an English inventor
Georges Leclanché (1839-1882), a French engineer
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), an Italian physicist
The Earth’s Resources
Because of the earth’s rapidly increasing population and the
dwindling of fossil fuels (natural gas, coal, and petroleum), there is
a need to design and develop new ways to obtain energy and to encourage
its intelligent use. The burning of fossil fuels to create energy
causes a slow buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere,
creating pollution that poses many problems for all forms of life on
this planet. Chemical and electrical studies can be combined to create
electrochemical processes that yield clean energy.
Because of their very high rate of efficiency and their nonpolluting
nature, fuel cells may provide the solution to the problem of
finding sufficient energy sources for humans. The simple reaction of
hydrogen and oxygen to form water in such a cell can provide an
enormous amount of clean (nonpolluting) energy. Moreover, hydrogen
and oxygen are readily available.
Studies by Alessandro Volta, Georges Leclanché, and William
Grove preceded the work of Bacon in the development of the fuel
cell. Bacon became interested in the idea of a hydrogen-oxygen fuel
cell in about 1932. His original intent was to develop a fuel cell that
could be used in commercial applications.
The Fuel Cell Emerges
In 1800, the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta experimented
with solutions of chemicals and metals that were able to conduct electricity. He found that two pieces of metal and such a solution
could be arranged in such a way as to produce an electric current.
His creation was the first electrochemical battery, a device that produced
energy from a chemical reaction. Studies in this area were
continued by various people, and in the late nineteenth century,
Georges Leclanché invented the dry cell battery, which is now commonly
used.
The work of William Grove followed that of Leclanché. His first
significant contribution was the Grove cell, an improved form of the
cells described above, which became very popular. Grove experimented
with various forms of batteries and eventually invented the
“gas battery,” which was actually the earliest fuel cell. It is worth
noting that his design incorporated separate test tubes of hydrogen
and oxygen, which he placed over strips of platinum.
After studying the design of Grove’s fuel cell, Bacon decided
that, for practical purposes, the use of platinum and other precious
metals should be avoided. By 1939, he had constructed a cell in
which nickel replaced the platinum used.
The theory behind the fuel cell can be described in the following
way. If a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen is ignited, energy is released
in the form of a violent explosion. In a fuel cell, however, the
reaction takes place in a controlled manner. Electrons lost by the hydrogen
gas flow out of the fuel cell and return to be taken up by the
oxygen in the cell. The electron flow provides electricity to any device
that is connected to the fuel cell, and the water that the fuel cell
produces can be purified and used for drinking.
Bacon’s studies were interrupted byWorldWar II. After the war
was over, however, Bacon continued his work. Sir Eric Keightley
Rideal of Cambridge University in England supported Bacon’s
studies; later, others followed suit. In January, 1954, Bacon wrote an
article entitled “Research into the Properties of the Hydrogen/ Oxygen
Fuel Cell” for a British journal. He was surprised at the speed
with which news of the article spread throughout the scientific
world, particularly in the United States.
After a series of setbacks, Bacon demonstrated a forty-cell unit
that had increased power. This advance showed that the fuel cell
was not merely an interesting toy; it had the capacity to do useful
work. At this point, the General Electric Company (GE), an American corporation, sent a representative to England to offer employment
in the United States to senior members of Bacon’s staff. Three scientists
accepted the offer.
A high point in Bacon’s career was the announcement that the
American Pratt and Whitney Aircraft company had obtained an order
to build fuel cells for the Apollo project, which ultimately put
two men on the Moon in 1969. Toward the end of his career in 1978,
Bacon hoped that commercial applications for his fuel cells would
be found.Impact
Because they are lighter and more efficient than batteries, fuel
cells have proved to be useful in the space program. Beginning with
the Gemini 5 spacecraft, alkaline fuel cells (in which a water solution
of potassium hydroxide, a basic, or alkaline, chemical, is placed)
have been used for more than ten thousand hours in space. The fuel
cells used aboard the space shuttle deliver the same amount of power
as batteries weighing ten times as much. On a typical seven-day
mission, the shuttle’s fuel cells consume 680 kilograms (1,500 pounds)
of hydrogen and generate 719 liters (190 gallons) of water that can
be used for drinking.
Major technical and economic problems must be overcome in order
to design fuel cells for practical applications, but some important
advancements have been made.Afew test vehicles that use fuel cells as a source of power have been constructed. Fuel cells using
hydrogen as a fuel and oxygen to burn the fuel have been used in a
van built by General Motors Corporation. Thirty-two fuel cells are
installed below the floorboards, and tanks of liquid oxygen are carried
in the back of the van. A power plant built in New York City
contains stacks of hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells, which can be put on
line quickly in response to power needs. The Sanyo Electric Company
has developed an electric car that is partially powered by a
fuel cell.
These tremendous technical advances are the result of the singleminded
dedication of Francis Thomas Bacon, who struggled all of
his life with an experiment he was convinced would be successful.